Dr David Murphy of the Department of History reviews the long and contentious history of US interest in the Arctic island, which seems to have entered a new phase under Donald Trump.

    Since the inauguration of Donald Trump's second administration, Greenland has been referred to quite frequently, usually in the context of America buying or taking over the island. 

    When Trump mooted this during his first administration in 2019, it was not taken seriously, but considerable fuel has been added this year to this discussion, or rather broadcast, as both the Danish and the Greenland governments have refused to discuss this matter.

    Last week, US vice-president JD Vance accompanied his wife, Usha, on a visit to Greenland, to visit the US Space Base at Pituffik. There was no formal invitation from the Danish government, which still controls Greenland’s foreign policy, to engage in any discussions during the visit.

    Ahead of the visit, Trump ramped up his claims to Greenland, saying that the US needed the Danish island for international security. "We need Greenland for international safety and security. We need it. We have to have it," he told podcaster Vince Coglianese. "I hate to put it that way, but we're going to have to have it." To date, the US announcements on Greenland have not gone beyond the offer to buy or seize the island. So far, the Trump administration has shown itself to be historically illiterate, but Greenland has featured in the American strategic thinking for over a century.

    During the last ten years we have seen an increasing interest in the strategic importance of the Arctic region. The effects of climate change have resulted in a reduction in ice coverage across the Arctic, and this has opened routes for navigation. There has been a significant increase in activity, with various nations including the US, Canada, and Russia, using icebreakers to open and explore new routes. There has also been an increase in submarine activity.

    However, this level of strategic interest is not new. During the 19th century, in an era that predated both the Suez and Panama canals, all the great powers of the period sent expeditions to the Arctic, to claim channels and islands, and to seek the elusive "North-West Passage". Large amounts of money, equipment and lives were expended on trying to find a route across the top of the world, via channels off Canada, to reach the Pacific Ocean.

    At that time, routes would occasionally open due to receding ice, but these were difficult to transit, and journeys sometimes took years. The forces of global warming are now leading to a rebirth of strategic interest in this area of the globe, with all the major powers vying for territory in the Arctic.

    Greenland has always figured prominently in this strategic discussion, and the island is now particularly relevant for the US, due to its proximity, and in the context of an existing American base there. Over the centuries, the island has seen the arrival of various phases of population. The Circumpolar peoples first arrived over 4,500 years ago. There have been numerous later incursions, including settlement by Norsemen in the 10th century, and settlement by Inuit in the 13th century.

    Other maritime powers, such as Portugal and Britain, explored its coasts and islands over the course of centuries. Significantly, in the 17th century, it was explored by a Dano-Norwegian expedition and there was a phase of settlement. Following the separation of Norway and Denmark in 1813, it fell under Danish control. In 1953, it was integrated into the Danish state, but was granted home rule in 1979, and now is classed as an autonomous territory.

    For America, Greenland has always been a strategic concern, especially in the context of other great powers exploring its coastline during the 19th and early 20th centuries. As early as 1920, the American government announced that no "third power" would be allowed to control Greenland. In the 1930s, Greenland was prominent in the discussions of the Technocracy Movement, founded by Howard Scott, who suggested absorbing Greenland, Canada, Mexico into the US and expanding American territory as far south as the Panama Canal.

    The outbreak of the Second World War brought considerable focus to this discussion. In 1940, Denmark, which had declared neutrality, was invaded by Germany and a pro-Nazi puppet regime was established. Both Britain and Canada considered occupying Greenland, but the US government entered negotiations with the Danish ambassador in Washington, Henrik Kauffmann, and an agreement was signed that made Greenland an American protectorate. When the US entered the war in 1941, Greenland technically became the territory of a combatant nation. The US would initially send vessels of the Coast Guard to secure significant ports and the important cryolite mine, and a US consulate was established at Godthaab (Nuuk).

    American concerns over belligerent activity in Greenland were not entirely unfounded. One of the lesser-known episodes of WW2 was the Atlantic Weather War. For both naval and air operations, timely and accurate meteorological information was at a premium. During the war, the Germans would use U-Boats and specially equipped aircraft to gather information, while also launching buoys into the sea. Both Bear Island and Spitzbergen (Svalbard) were used for weather stations.

    The Germans also landed teams by both plane and U-Boat to set up remote weather stations. These included a station that was established in Canada on the coast of Labrador. In the summer of 1942, the Germans began inserting special teams by sea and air into Greenland on missions to gather meteorological intelligence. These were among the most unusual forces fielded by any side during WW2, and were composed of meteorologists, and Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe crews trained in Arctic survival and warfare. Initial stations on Sabine Island and Shannon Island gathered much useful information before being attacked or their teams being withdrawn.

    In 1944, two German expeditions were intercepted by the US Coast Guard vessels before reaching Greenland, but they later established a successful weather station at Hansa Bay. To counter this activity, the US Coast Guard established the Greenland Sledge Patrol, composed of American, Inuit, Danish and Norwegian personnel. This team was tasked with curbing this German activity and a cat-and-mouse campaign developed in the high Arctic.

    The German weather stations were eventually all taken out, some being bombed by US bombers, while the last German weather station, Edelweiss II, was captured by US ships in November 1944. This operation saw the capture of the German supply ship, the Externsteine.

    During WW2, Greenland also emerged as a crucial transit location for US aircraft heading to Britain to take part in the strategic bombing campaign over Europe. Ultimately, the US would establish over 30 weather stations, bases and airfields on the island. For many US bomber crews in WW2, their operational service began with a transatlantic flight, stopping at Greenland and Iceland (which had been occupied by Britain in 1940) for refuelling.

    One of the significant US bases on Greenland was at Thule and this airfield would see intense activity during the Cold War. Denmark joined NATO in 1948, and the Greenland Defence Agreement of 1951 allowed the US to maintain this base. Thule would emerge as a major operating location for US Strategic Air Command and gradually saw the installation of a missile early-warning radar, which, it was hoped, would detect an incoming transpolar missile attack.

    One of the more bizarre US projects of the Cold War was Project Iceworm, which planned for the creation of an underground tunnel complex to house mobile missiles systems. Located at Camp Century to the east of Thule, this project envisaged creating a base for over 600 missiles that would target the USSR. Their mobility in a tunnel complex beneath the Greenland ice cap would, in theory, reduce their vulnerability to a Soviet first strike.

    The project was terminated in the mid-1960s due to construction difficulties and because approval for such a missile complex had not been granted by the Danish government. The relevant files remained classified until 1996.

    The US base at Thule saw significant activity throughout the Cold War, and this came with associated issues. Members of the Inuit community, who represent the majority population of Greenland, were relocated to allow for expansion of the base. In 1968, a B52 bomber crashed while carrying four nuclear weapons. These did not detonate but the resulting fire caused local contamination.

    In 2020, the base was handed over to the US Space Force and renamed Pituffik Space Base in 2023. The new name is a reference to the former Inuit hunting village of Pituffik, which was at this location. The Pituffik base is the most northerly installation of US forces and currently provides missile detection, space surveillance and satellite control facilities.

    Greenland is currently being governed by an interim government. The incoming government will be led by the Demokraatit Party, which supports the idea of a gradual move towards independence. In a public poll in early 2025, over 80% of Greenlanders said they wished to become independent. All five of Greenland’s political parties have issued a joint statement rejecting recent US overtures regarding the annexation or buying of Greenland. The Danish government has signalled that it must be included in any future discussions.

    While US interest in Greenland has a long history, it seems to have now entered a new phase. Due to Greenland’s key strategic position, abundant natural resources and the increasing importance of the Arctic region generally, the Vance visit comes at a key moment. His mission was to convince a population with long ties to Europe, to re-orientate themselves towards America, while also bringing the Danish government onside. Given the current atmospherics that surrounded the visit, some subtle and highly intelligent diplomacy will be required to potentially achieve these objectives.

    This piece originally appeared on RTÉ Brainstorm.